InDepth: World Wide Water Mafia #01: Disparities, Demands, and Distribution
IC InDepth Team
Mumbai, 30 August 2019
The global distribution of water presents a paradox—local supply and demand are often dissonant. Countries like China, though home to vast populations, grapple with water scarcity compared to the abundance enjoyed by nations like Canada.
Pollution, industrialization, and excessive use have ravaged water systems like China’s Yellow River, exacerbating the scarcity crisis. Similarly, thirteen Arab nations rank among the world’s most water-deprived, with precipitation dwindling and evaporation surging.
Even water-rich regions such as Brazil are not immune to droughts and scarcity.
Irrespective of abundance or paucity, inequality in water access persists across urban and rural landscapes.
The global tapestry of water pricing also varies extensively, from Denmark’s user-funded water to Singapore’s economically favorable rates.
Towards Universal Water Access
Although monumental strides have been made, disparities in water access persist. In 2015, 650 million individuals lacked access to safe drinking water – a substantial decrease from a decade prior when 1 billion suffered the same plight.
The international community set forth the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to address these disparities. SDGs encompasses an intricate agenda, aiming for universal and fair access to clean, affordable drinking water; hygiene and sanitation equity; water quality enhancement; enhanced water-use efficiency; integrated water resource management; and the restoration of water-related ecosystems by 2020.
Lingering Challenges and Looming Stresses
However, the promising goals of the SDGs are accompanied by persisting challenges.
The intertwined impacts of global warming, desertification, deforestation, unchecked population growth, and suboptimal water management pose threats to water availability and quality.
A quarter of Africa’s populace is already grappling with chronic water stress. Projections indicate that by 2025, 3 billion individuals could inhabit water-stressed countries, many marked by high poverty rates and soaring population figures.
As the world’s population skyrockets, water consumption soars—increasing sevenfold over a century.
The specter of water scarcity looms over regions ranging from sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East to South Asia, China, Australia, Mexico, and the western United States.
Water Consumption: Varied Needs and Practices
The United Nations and experts advocate for a daily minimum water requirement of 50 liters per person.
This allocation assumes that a portion goes towards drinking and the rest for essential tasks like cooking, washing, and sanitation. Yet, in severely water-stressed nations, meeting this basic threshold can prove challenging. On the flip side, the United States boasts an average per capita water use between 400 and 600 liters daily—the highest among all countries.
Much of this American consumption is marked by extravagance, exemplified by habits like letting taps run while brushing teeth. In Europe, per capita water consumption stands at less than half of the U.S. figure.
Agriculture’s Water Demands and Challenges
Globally, agriculture is the largest consumer of surface water (70% from rivers and lakes) and groundwater. While efficient irrigation can alleviate poverty and boost crop yields, it can also place significant stress on water resources.
An oft-quoted example is that producing a cup of coffee demands 140 liters of water, primarily for growing coffee plants. The concept of a “water footprint” for agricultural products, although debated for its accuracy, highlights water’s hidden role in food production.
Applying this idea, producing a kilogram of wheat requires 1,300 liters, while a kilogram of beef demands a staggering 15,000 liters. In India, the proliferation of agricultural wells driven by subsidized energy and pumps has led to groundwater depletion.
Over four decades, well numbers exploded from 2 million to 23 million, escalating water scarcity, urbanization, and illegal sourcing (water theft).
Emerging Water Competition and Challenges
Around the world, fierce competition over water resources is escalating. Factors such as population growth, urbanization, rising living standards, overuse, environmental degradation, and climate change are driving this intensification.
As surface water diminishes or becomes polluted, attention shifts to groundwater. Arizona’s innovative approach in the 1990s established a “groundwater bank” to counter potential river water shortages.
In practice, this bank refills groundwater basins using Colorado River water and safeguards it for future scarcity.
Collaborative efforts between states like Arizona, California, and Nevada further strengthen groundwater management.
Similarly, cities acquire Colorado River water and replenish groundwater systems through techniques like injection or infiltration.
In Nevada, a dedicated groundwater bank serves the same purpose.
Overuse and Depletion of Groundwater
Groundwater use can present significant challenges. Across both developed and developing nations, the availability of affordable drilling equipment, pumps, and energy sources has led to rapid overuse and depletion of groundwater.
Troublingly, regions including parts of India, northern China, Yemen, and Mexico have witnessed substantial drops in water tables, with at least a quarter of aquifers exceeding sustainable extraction levels.
Complexities of Groundwater Regulation
Regulating groundwater proves even more intricate and prone to regulatory failures than surface water.
Given its invisibility and the lack of precise estimates on aquifer dynamics, including size, replenishment, and depletion, issues like overuse, water theft, and smuggling become more pronounced.
As private entities like farmers, businesses, and industries often fund groundwater use, its reporting tends to be woefully underreported.
Yet, the interconnections between underground and surface water resources, such as in river systems, demonstrate that water theft and smuggling can extend to both sources.
Balancing Sustainability and Equitable Access
The primary goal of water regulation is to ensure long-term sustainability and harmonious use of water across society, covering all stakeholders and competing needs – be it drinking, agriculture, industry, energy, or preserving natural ecosystems.
However, strict legal compliance alone doesn’t guarantee efficient water use.
An inadequate regulatory framework can foster various shortcomings in water management. Moreover, adhering strictly to legal distribution doesn’t always translate into equitable access.
In numerous parts of the world, particularly urban areas, marginalized communities often access water through private or extralegal distribution systems.
Navigating Customary and Unauthorized Water Use
In developing countries, customary water practices, like grazing, cultivation, and drinking, may be both unauthorized and illegal, despite their vital role in the survival of rural and pastoralist populations.
While water regulations aim to ensure sustainability and responsible water use, addressing these complexities requires multifaceted strategies that incorporate cultural and socioeconomic contexts.
Challenges in Regulatory Implementation
Establishing a robust regulatory system hinges on legal compliance, as inadequately priced water and attempts to avoid costs can lead to overuse, depletion, and eventual deterioration of water treatment and supply infrastructure.
These issues exacerbate the challenges of water access for marginalized communities, causing even their informal or illicit water collection and distribution sources to dry up.
Mere property rights allocation and water pricing prove insufficient without effective enforcement mechanisms in place.
Emergence of Cross-Border Water Smuggling
While cross-border water smuggling hasn’t yet manifested on a large scale, its potential rise presents significant concerns.
The implications encompass political dynamics, conflicts, and geostrategic considerations.
Without stringent regulations and enforcement, the emergence of widespread cross-border water smuggling could disrupt the equilibrium between nations and intensify geopolitical tensions.
Threats of Water Theft and Unsustainable Use
In this section, a comprehensive exploration is undertaken into the manifold threats arising from water theft and unsustainable water usage.
By examining the consequences of these practices, the discussion sheds light on the broader implications for communities, ecosystems, and societies at large.
Diverse Forms of Water Theft and Smuggling
An intricate analysis follows of the myriad forms that can be classified as water theft.
The exploration encompasses the varying nature and extent of water smuggling incidents, shedding light on the dimensions and scale of the issue.
By delving into these aspects, a comprehensive picture of the multifaceted challenge emerges.
Involvement of Various Actors
The examination continues by scrutinizing the heterogeneous range of actors engaged in informal and illegal water-related activities.
These actors span both formal government bodies and informal powerbrokers.
Understanding their roles and motivations is critical to comprehending the complex network underlying these activities.
Control, Power, and Political Capital
A nuanced analysis of control over water resources and illegal water markets unfolds, revealing how these dynamics confer political capital and power to both formal governmental bodies and informal players.
This intricate interplay of interests showcases how water’s control extends beyond its physical properties, influencing broader sociopolitical landscapes.
Next: InDepth: World Wide Water Mafia #02: Threats to Water Security
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